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Eclipse

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Eclipse</h2>
A Presentation to Astronomy Ireland<br />By: David Grennan, 27th February 2006<br />
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Solar Eclipses - Past, Present, and Future.</h2>
Eclipse Mythology<br />Chinese, Hindu, Egyptian, Impact on modern day<br />science and religion.<br />Mechanics of Solar Eclipses<br />Why eclipses occur.<br />Types of Eclipse.<br />Phases of an eclipse.<br />Shadows <br />Bailys Beads.<br />Diamond Ring.<br />Temperature<br />Corona.<br />Prominences.<br />
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Solar Eclipses - Past, Present, and Future.</h2>
Safely Viewing Eclipses<br />Eclipse, March 29, 2006 a guide.<br />Using computer simulations<br />Eclipse from Ireland.<br />Eclipse from Turkey.<br />Eclipse from Space<br />Future Eclipses<br />Important Eclipses present – 2030<br />The 'almost' total eclipse of 2015 from Ireland.<br />
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Eclipse Lore and Mythology</h2>
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"Nothing there is beyond hope, nothing that can be sworn impossible,<br />nothing wonderful, since Zeus, father of the Olympians,<br />made night from mid-day, hiding the light of the shining Sun,<br />and sore fear came upon men." Archilochus (c.710 - 676 BC)<br />
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Eclipse Lore and Mythology</h2>
Our ancestors saw eclipses as evil omens, often as portents<br />
of some catastrophic event or a sign from their deities.<br />The earliest recorded eclipse was in China on <br />October 22, 2134 BC.  The two court astrologers to the<br />Emporer lost their heads because, they had failed to predict it<br />The Babylonians were the first to calculate the regular<br />intervals at which eclipses occur.<br />Thales of Miletus predicted a solar eclipse that marked<br />the beginning of the Greek scientific/philosophic era.<br />
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Eclipse Lore and Mythology</h2>
Word eclipse comes from a Greek word, “ekleipsis”<br />meaning abandonment.<br />There is a story that suggests Christopher Columbus used his<br />Knowledge of an upcoming lunar eclipse to great effect.<br />
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Ancient China</h2>
People of ancient China were convinced that eclipses<br />Occurred because a great dragon (or toad, or dog) was<br />Devouring the Sun.<br />They made load noises, banged implements etc to scare<br />Away the dragon.<br />As total eclipses can only last a maximum of 7 ½ minutes<br />There raucous behaviour always had the desired effect.<br />
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Ancient China</h2>
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Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)<br />
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Hindu Folklore</h2>
According to Hindu mythology, the eclipse represents<br />the demons Rahu and Keta locked in celestial combat and<br />eating the Sun. <br />
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Hindu Folklore</h2>
The Gods were drinking the elixir of immortality.<br />The demon Rahu slipped into their midst and stole a sip.<br />Surya (the sun) and Soma (the moon) reported the incident<br />to the great deity Vishnu.<br />Vishnu promptly sought out the impudent Rahu<br />and lopped off his head.<br />But having become deathless, Rahu survived and to this day<br />seeks revenge on the tattletales by devouring them.<br />
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Ancient Egypt</h2>
The egyptian word for eclipse is ‘Akhet’<br />King Akhenaten (1356-1338 BC) built his capital according<br />to the totality path of the solar eclipse of 08/15/-1351.<br />The Pharaoh named his new residence 'Akhet Aten'.<br />The name of the city means: 'The Eclipse of Aten'.<br />The name of the Giza Sphinx was 'Hor in the Akhet‘<br />Many different ancient egyptian sun cults saw eclipses<br />Differently.  Many refer to a serpent eating the Sun God.<br />Most however refer to a great hawk stealing RA’s glory.<br />
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Eclipses and Religion</h2>
Many hindus to this day immerse themselves in holy rivers<br />And lakes during solar eclipses.<br />Working during eclipses is considered bad luck.<br />Muslim tradition holds that the prophet Mohammed,<br />the founder of Islam, prayed for the duration of an eclipse.<br />Senior muslim clerics issued an edict forbidding people to<br />look at the Sun directly because it transgresses Islamic law<br />to harm oneself.<br />Druids believe eclipse represents man and woman together.<br />
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Eclipses and Religion</h2>
Luke 23:44-48 “And it was about the sixth hour, and there<br />was a darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour.  And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple<br />was rent in the midstSome suggest a solar eclipse as an explaination for<br />The ‘darkness’ however the facts don’t lend credance.<br />
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Mechanics of Solar Eclipses</h2>
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Solar eclipse of<br />11 Aug 1999<br />From MIR<br />Spacestation.<br />
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Mechanics of Solar Eclipses</h2>
Todo insert flash file.<br />
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Total Eclipse</h2>
Although a total eclipse refers to a specific event, the events leading<br />Up to ‘totality’ and following it also hold much interest.<br />Partial Phase<br />Shadows<br />Bailys Beads<br />Diamond Ring<br />
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TotalityPartial Phase</h2>
During the partial phase there are many interesting things to note.<br />First Contact.<br />Eclipse increasing in magnitude.<br />Temperature.<br />Increasing Darkness<br />Shadow Bands<br />Crescent Shadows<br />Creatures settling believing night is imminent<br />Moons shadow racing from the west(ish).<br />Bailys Beads<br />Diamond Ring<br />
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First Contact.</h2>
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The moment when the western limb of the Moon contacts the<br />Eastern limb of the Sun.<br />First contact is not directly<br />Visible, however very shortly<br />Afterwards a little ‘bite’ is<br />Taken from the Sun.<br />
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 </h2>
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Increasing Darkness </h2>
With the decrease in the area of Sun presented to us<br />Ambient light levels fall.<br />Most noticeable in the latter stages of the eclipse.<br />Video from west Africa showing this dramatically.<br />
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Shadow Bands</h2>
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Caused by distortions in the Earth’s atmosphere and the partially<br />Eclipsed Sun.<br />Best seen on a pale coloured<br />Wall or concrete pavement.<br />
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Crescent Shadows</h2>
Note shadows cast by irregularly shaped objects such as leaves<br />From trees.<br />
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The Hybrid Eclipse.</h2>
The official explaination!<br />“A hybrid eclipse is a unique type of central eclipse where parts<br />of the path are annular while other parts are total.<br />This duality comes about when the vertex of the Moon's umbral<br />shadow pierces Earth's surface at some points, but falls short<br />of the planet along other portions of the eclipse path.<br />The curvature of Earth's surface brings some geographic locations<br />along the path into the umbra while other positions are more distant<br />and enter the antumbral rather than umbral shadow.”<br />
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The Hybrid Eclipse.</h2>
In practice!<br />
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Eclipse Safety</h2>
Directly looking at the Sun,<br />even for a short time,<br />CAN PERMANENTLY<br />DAMAGE YOU EYESIGHT<br /><br />
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Eclipse

Eclipse A Presentation to Astronomy Ireland By: David Grennan, 27th February 2006 Solar Eclipses - Past, Present, and Future. Eclipse M...

What are Earthquakes

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What are Earthquakes?</h2>
The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of energy<br />Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks<br />Continuing adjustment of position results in aftershocks<br />
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What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?</h2>
Explains how energy is stored in rocks<br />Rocks bend until the strength of the rock is exceeded<br />Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to an undeformed shape<br />Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from the fault<br />
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The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake</h2>
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The point within Earth where faulting begins is the focus, or hypocenter<br />The point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicenter<br />
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Seismographs record earthquake events</h2>
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 At convergent boundaries, focal depth increases along a dipping seismic zone called a Benioff zone<br />
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Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?</h2>
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~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt<br />most of these result from convergent margin activity<br />~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt<br />remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on spreading ridge centers<br />more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are recorded each year<br />
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The Economics and Societal Impacts of EQs</h2>
Building collapse<br />Fire<br /> Tsunami<br />Ground failure<br />
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What are Seismic Waves?</h2>
Response of material to the arrival of energy fronts released by rupture<br />Two types:<br /> Body waves<br />P and S<br />Surface waves<br />R and L<br />
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Body Waves: P and S waves</h2>
Body waves<br />P or primary waves<br />fastest waves<br />travel through solids, liquids, or gases<br />compressional wave, material movement is in the same direction as wave movement<br />S or secondary waves<br />slower than P waves<br />travel through solids only<br />shear waves - move material perpendicular to wave movement<br />
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Surface Waves: R and L waves</h2>
Surface Waves<br />Travel just below or along the ground’s surface<br />Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side movement<br />Especially damaging to buildings<br />
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How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?</h2>
     Seismic wave behavior<br />P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R<br />Average speeds for all these waves is known<br />
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After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a seismograph station can be used to calculate the distance from the seismograph to the epicenter.<br />
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How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?</h2>
Time-distance graph showing the average travel times for P- and S-waves. The farther away a seismograph is from the focus of an earthquake, the longer the interval between the arrivals of the P- and S- waves<br />
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How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?</h2>
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Three seismograph stations are needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake<br />A circle where the radius equals the distance to the epicenter is drawn<br />The intersection of the circles locates the epicenter <br />
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How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?</h2>
subjective measure of the kind of damage done and people’s reactions to it<br />isoseismal lines identify areas of equal intensity<br />Modified Mercalli Intensity Map<br />1994 Northridge, CA earthquake, magnitude 6.7<br />
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How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?</h2>
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Magnitude<br />Richter scale measures total amount of energy released by an earthquake; independent of intensity<br />Amplitude of the largest wave produced by an event is corrected for distance and assigned a value on an open-ended logarithmic scale<br />
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What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?</h2>
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Ground Shaking<br />amplitude, duration, and damage increases in poorly consolidated rocks<br />
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Can Earthquakes be Predicted?</h2>
Earthquake Precursors <br />changes in elevation or tilting of land surface, fluctuations in groundwater levels, magnetic field, electrical resistance of the ground<br />seismic dilatancy model<br />seismic gaps<br />
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Can Earthquakes be Predicted?</h2>
Earthquake Prediction Programs<br />include laboratory and field studies of rocks before, during, and after earthquakes<br />monitor activity along major faults<br />produce risk assessments<br />
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Can Earthquakes be Controlled?</h2>
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Graph showing the relationship between the amount of waste injected into wells per month and the average number of Denver earthquakes per month<br />Some have suggested that pumping fluids into seismic gaps will cause small earthquakes while preventing large ones<br /><br />
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What are Earthquakes

What are Earthquakes? The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of energy Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rock...

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

<h2>
Earthquakes and Volcanoes</h2>
<h2>
Earthquakes</h2>
An earthquake is the shaking and trembling that results from the sudden movement of part of the Earth’s crust.<br />
The most common cause of earthquakes is faulting. During faulting, energy is released.  Rocks continue to move until the energy is used up.<br />
<h2>
Seismic Risk Map of the U.S.</h2>
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<h2>
San Andreas Fault</h2>
The San Andreas fault extends 960 km from Mexico to the north of California.<br />
The land to the west is moving north.  The land to the east of the fault is moving south.  All the rocks do not move at the same time so earthquakes occur in one area and then another.<br />
<h2>
San Francisco Quake</h2>
In 1906, movement along the San Andreas fault caused an earthquake in San Francisco.<br />
<h2>
Tsunamis</h2>
Earthquakes which occur on the ocean floor produce giant sea waves called tsunamis.  Tsunamis can travel at speeds of 700 to 800 km per hour.  As they approach the coast, they can reach heights of greater than 20 meters.<br />
<h2>
Focus</h2>
Most faults occur between the surface and a depth of 70 kilometers.<br />
The point beneath the surface where the rocks break and move is called the focus. The focus is the underground origin of an earthquake.<br />
<h2>
Epicenter</h2>
Directly above the focus, on the Earth’s surface is the epicenter.  Earthquake waves reach the epicenter first.  During an earthquake, the most violent shaking is found at the epicenter.<br />
<h2>
Seismic Waves</h2>
There are three main types of seismic waves.<br />
Primary<br />
Secondary<br />
Surface<br />
<h2>
Primary Waves</h2>
Seismic waves that travel fastest are P waves.  They travel through solids, liquids and gases.<br />
They move at different speeds depending on the density of the material through which they are moving.  As they move deeper in the Earth they move faster.<br />
P waves are push-pull waves.<br />
<h2>
Secondary Waves</h2>
Seismic waves that do not travel through the Earth as fast as P waves do are called secondary or S waves.<br />
S waves travel through solids but not liquids or gases.<br />
S waves cause particles to move from side to side. They move at right angles to the direction of the wave.<br />
<h2>
Surface Waves</h2>
The slowest moving seismic waves are called surface waves or L waves.  <br />
L waves originate on the Earth’s surface at the epicenter.  They move along the surface the way waves travel in the ocean.  The Earth’s surface moves up and down with each L wave.<br />
L waves cause most of the damage.<br />
<h2>
The Seismograph</h2>
Invented in 1893 by John Milne, a seismograph detects and measures seismic waves.<br />
A weight attached to a spring remains nearly still even when the Earth moves.  A pen attached to the weight records any movement on a roll of paper on a constantly rotating drum. The drum moves with the Earth and affects the line.<br />
<h2>
Seismologists</h2>
Seismologists study earthquakes. They can determine the strength of an earthquake by the height of the wavy line recorded on the paper.<br />
The seismograph record of waves is called a seismogram.<br />
The Richter scale is used to calculate the strength of an earthquake.<br />
<h2>
The Richter Scale</h2>
The amount of damage created by an earthquake depends on several factors.<br />
The earthquake’s strength<br />
The kind of rock and soil that underlie an area<br />
The population of the area<br />
The kind of buildings in the area<br />
The time at which the earthquake occurs<br />
<h2>
Predicting Earthquakes</h2>
Scientists have identified warning signals the help predict earthquakes with greater accuracy.<br />
Often changes occur in the speed of P and S waves before an earthquake occurs.<br />
Sometimes slight changes in the tilt of the Earth’s surface can be detected.<br />
Some scientists believe animals behavior is affected.<br />
<h2>
Formation of a Volcano</h2>
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<h2>
Magma</h2>
Deep within the Earth, under tremendous pressure and at great temperatures, rock exists as a hot liquid called magma.  This molten rock is found in pockets called magma chambers.<br />
<h2>
Lava</h2>
When the magma reaches the surface, it is called lava.  The place in the Earth’s surface through which magma and other materials reach the surface is called a volcano.  In some places, lava can build up to forma cone-shaped mountain.<br />
The opening from which lava erupts is the vent.  Volcanoes often have more than one vent.<br />
<h2>
Dark-Colored Lava</h2>
There are four types of lava.<br />
One is dark-colored and contains a lot of water. This is rich in iron and magnesium and cools to form igneous rocks such as basalt.  This lava is thin and runny and most tends to flow.  The islands of Hawaii and Iceland were formed by many lava flows.<br />
<h2>
Light-Colored Lava</h2>
The second type of lava is light in color. This lava, contains little water and is rich in silicon and aluminum. Light-colored lava causes explosive eruptions. Silicon tends to harden in the vents and form rocks.  Steam and new lava build up under the rocks.  When the pressure becomes great, a violent explosion occurs. When this type of lava cools it form the igneous rock, rhyolite, which resembles granite.<br />
<h2>
 Combination Lava</h2>
The third type of lava has a chemical composition similar to that of both the dark-colored type and the light-colored type.  Different varieties of igneous rocks in the Earth’s crust, such as andesite, are form from this type of lava.<br />
<h2>
Gaseous Lava</h2>
The fourth type of lava contains large amounts of gases such as steam and carbon dioxide.  When this lava hardens, it forms rocks with many holes in them, due to gas bubbles. Pumice and scoria are igneous rocks formed from this type of lava.<br />
<h2>
Volcanic Eruptions</h2>
During volcanic eruptions, many rock fragments are blown into the air. The smallest particles are called volcanic dust. (less than 0.25 mm)<br />Volcanic Ash ( 0.25 -5mm) falls to the Earth and forms small rocks.<br />Volcanic bombs (a few cm to several meters) are molten and harden as they travel through the air.<br />
<h2>
Types of Volcanoes</h2>
Different types of volcanic eruptions form different types of volcanoes.<br />Cinder cones<br />Shield volcanoes<br />Composite volcanoes<br />
<h2>
Three Types</h2>
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<h2>
Cinder Cones</h2>
Volcanoes made mostly of cinders and other rock particles that have been blown into the air are called cinder cones.  Cinder cones form from explosive eruptions.  Because the material is loosely arranged, the cones are not high.  The have a narrow base and steep sides such as Paricutin in Mexico.<br />
<h2>
Cinder Cone Volcano</h2>
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<h2>
Shield Volcanoes</h2>
Volcanoes composed of quiet flows are called shield volcanoes.  Because it is rummy, the lava flows over a large area.  After several eruptions, a dome-shaped mountain is formed such as Mauna Loa (4km over sea level) in the Hawaiian Islands.<br /><br />
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Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Earthquakes and Volcanoes Earthquakes An earthquake is the shaking and trembling that results from the sudden movement of part of the Ea...

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

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<h2>
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)</h2>
<h2>
Genetic material of cells…</h2>
GENES – units of genetic material that CODES FOR A SPECIFIC TRAIT<br />
Called NUCLEIC ACIDS<br />
DNA is made up of repeating molecules called NUCLEOTIDES<br />
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</h2>
<h2>
A HISTORY OF DNA </h2>
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SEE p. 292-293<br />
Discovery of the DNA double helix<br />
    A.  Frederick Griffith – Discovers that a factor in diseased bacteria can transform harmless bacteria into deadly bacteria     (1928)<br />
    B.    Rosalind Franklin - X-ray photo of DNA.<br />
    C.    Watson and Crick - described the         DNA molecule from Franklin’s X-ray.<br />
<h2>
Watson & Crick proposed…</h2>
 DNA had specific pairing between the     nitrogen bases:<br />
ADENINE – THYMINE<br />
CYTOSINE - GUANINE<br />
CYTOSINE - GUANINE<br />
DNA was made of 2 long stands of     nucleotides arranged in a specific way     called the “Complementary Rule”<br />
<h2>
DNA Double Helix</h2>
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<h2>
DNA Double Helix</h2>
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<h2>
Nitrogenous Bases</h2>
PURINES<br />
    1.    Adenine (A)<br />
    2.    Guanine (G)<br />
PYRIMIDINES<br />
    3.    Thymine (T)<br />
    4.    Cytosine (C)<br />
<h2>
Chargaff’s Rule</h2>
Adenine must pair with Thymine<br />
Guanine must pair with Cytosine<br />
Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same.<br />
<h2>
BASE-PAIRINGS</h2>
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<h2>
 Genetic Diversity…</h2>
Different arrangements of NUCLEOTIDES in a nucleic acid (DNA) provides the key to DIVERSITY among living organisms.<br />
<h2>
The Code of Life…</h2>
The “code” of the chromosome is the SPECIFIC ORDER that bases occur.<br />
A T C G T A T G C G G…<br />
<h2>
DNA Replication </h2>
DNA must be copiedThe DNA molecule produces   2 IDENTICAL new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing: <br />
A-T, G-C<br />
Each strand of the original DNA serves as a template for the new strand   See p. 298<br />
<h2>
DNA Replication</h2>
Semiconservative Model:<br />
    1.    Watson and Crick showed: the two strands of the parental molecule separate, and each functions as a template for synthesis of a     new complementary strand.<br />
Parental DNA<br />
<h2>
Replication Quiz</h2>
1.  Why is replication necessary?<br />
2.  When does replication occur?<br />
3.  Describe how replication works.<br />
Use the complementary rule to<br />
     create the complementary strand:     <br />
<h2>
Replication Quiz</h2>
1.  Why is replication necessary?<br />
    So both new cells will have the correct DNA<br />
2.  When does replication occur?<br />
During interphase (S phase).<br />
3.  Describe how replication works.<br />
Enzymes unzip DNA and complementary nucleotides join each original strand.<br />
4.  Use the complementary rule to <br />
         create the complementary strand:<br />
<h2>
(1961) Watson & Crick proposed…</h2>
…DNA controlled cell function by serving as a template for PROTEIN structure.<br />
3 Nucleotides = a triplet or CODON<br />
(which code for a specific AMINO ACID)<br />
See p.303<br />
AMINO ACIDS are the building blocks of proteins.<br />
<h2>
DNA Transcription</h2>
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DNA can “unzip” itself and RNA nucleotides match up to the DNA strand.<br />
Both DNA & RNA are formed from NUCLEOTIDES and are called  NUCLEIC acids.<br />
<h2>
DNA Translation</h2>
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The cell uses information from “messenger” RNA to produce proteins <br />
<br />
<h2>
Transcription/Translation Quiz</h2>
Why is transcription necessary?<br />
Describe transcription.<br />
Why is translation necessary?<br />
Describe translation.<br />
What are the main differences between DNA and RNA.<br />
Using the chart on page 303, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons:<br />
<h2>
    1.  Why is transcription necessary?</h2>
    Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA) to carry the code for proteins out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. <br />
2.  Describe transcription.<br />
    RNA polymerase binds to DNA, separates the strands, then uses one strand as a template to assemble MRNA.<br />
3.  Why is translation necessary?<br />
    Translation assures that the right amino acids are joined together by peptides to form the correct protein.<br />
4.  Describe translation.    <br />
    The cell uses information from MRNA to produce proteins.<br />
5.  What are the main differences between DNA and RNA.<br />
    DNA has deoxyribose, RNA has ribose; DNA has 2 strands, RNA has one strand; DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil.    <br />
Using the chart on page 303, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons: UGGCAGUGC<br />
<h2>
AMAZING DNA FACTS…</h2>
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DNA from a single human cell extends in a single thread for almost 2 meters long!!!<br />
It contains information equal to some 600,000 printed pages of 500 words each!!!   <br />
(a library of about 1,000 books)<br />
<h2>
LET’S REVIEW DNA… LM p.44</h2>
List the conclusions Griffith & Avery, Hershey & Chase drew from their experiments.<br />Summarize the relationship between genes & DNA.<br />Describe the overall structure of the DNA molecule.<br />What are the 4 kinds of bases?<br /><br />
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 </h2>

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) Genetic material of cells… GENES – units of genetic material that CODES FOR A SPECIFIC TRAIT Called NUCLE...

You have just entered the

<h2>
        You have just entered the </h2>
           Creative Writing<br />
        lab<br />          8th and 9th <br />

<br />
                         grade<br />          Mrs. Betts<br /><h2>
           This semester         you will learn</h2>
   * How to write in different genre<br />   * Computer skills<br />   * More than you ever thought possible<br />
<h2>
         Sentence Structure</h2>
Subject and predicate <br />Various structures<br />Different beginnings<br />Punctuation<br />NTSBWTSW<br />
<h2>
                Paragraphing</h2>
Topic Sentence<br />At least 3 supporting sentences<br />Conclusion<br />
<h2>
       Types of paragraphs </h2>
Descriptive<br />Character sketch<br />Information<br />Persuasion<br />
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<h2>
              Writing projects</h2>
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Paragraphs<br />Short stories<br />Children’s stories<br />Poetry <br />Writing portfolio<br /><br />
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<h2>

</h2>
<h2>
        Teacher expectations</h2>
Come to class prepared      <br />       *pencil<br />       *writing notebook<br />No homework out of class<br />       *must work in class<br />All writing done in Computer lab<br />Positive attitude<br />You will become a better  writer<br />We will have fun!<br />This will be your favorite class !<br /><br />
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You have just entered the

You have just entered the Creative Writing lab 8th and 9th grade ...

Tigers

<h2>
Tigers</h2>
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On the next page, you will see information about tigers. There are four paragraphs altogether. Read the text carefully, then click the yellow button.<br />You will then see some questions. All the answers are in the text - did you read it carefully? Click your chosen answer.<br />
<h2>
 Tigers</h2>
Tigers belong to the cat family. They can be found in the cold, snowy environments of Siberia. Here they have long, thick fur to keep them warm. They also live in warm places such as jungles in India.<br />Tigers do not live in herds or packs like some animals but hunt on their own.<br />A male tiger is bigger than a female tiger but apart from this they look the same. They have orange fur and black stripes. The stripes help them to hide in the grass and in the trees. Some tigers have white fur but there are not many of these in the world.<br />Tigers rest in the day and hunt at night. They like to catch deer and wild pig but they will eat almost any animal. Tigers are not really fast runners so they have to creep very close to their prey and then pounce.<br />
<h2>
Tigers</h2>
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 1) True or false? – A female tiger is bigger than a male tiger.<br />a) True b) False<br />
<h2>
Correct – well done!</h2>
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A male tiger is bigger than a female tiger but apart from this they look the same.<br />
<h2>
 Tigers</h2>
Tigers belong to the cat family. They can be found in the cold, snowy environments of Siberia. Here they have long, thick fur to keep them warm. They also live in warm places such as jungles in India.<br />Tigers do not live in herds or packs like some animals but hunt on their own.<br />A male tiger is bigger than a female tiger but apart from this they look the same. They have orange fur and black stripes. The stripes help them to hide in the grass and in the trees. Some tigers have white fur but there are not many of these in the world.<br />Tigers rest in the day and hunt at night. They like to catch deer and wild pig but they will eat almost any animal. Tigers are not really fast runners so they have to creep very close to their prey and then pounce.<br />
<h2>
Tigers</h2>
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Now draw a habitat for tigers, using the ‘Paint’ program on your computer. The information in the comprehension will help you.<br />Congratulations on completing the quiz!<br /><br />
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Tigers

Tigers On the next page, you will see information about tigers. There are four paragraphs altogether. Read the text carefully, then clic...

The COIL and the wonderful properties of INDUCTANCE

<h2>
The COIL and the wonderful properties of INDUCTANCE</h2>
A tale of two properties….Electricity Makes Magnetism?<br />Magnetism Makes Electricity???<br />Electricity Makes Magnetism Makes Electricity?????<br />
<h2>
What is Magnetism?</h2>
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The magnet is surrounded by an invisible force field<br />All magnets have a North and South POLE<br />Opposite poles attracted each other<br />All ferrous (containing iron) materials can be magnetized<br /> The earth is the biggest magnet around<br />
<h2>
Earths as a magnet</h2>
The iron core of the earth allows a magnetic field to be created<br />
<h2>
"Heavy Metal" Attraction</h2>
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<h2>
Joseph Henry’s Bigger and “Badder” Electromagnet<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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</h2>
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The COIL and the wonderful properties of INDUCTANCE

The COIL and the wonderful properties of INDUCTANCE A tale of two properties….Electricity Makes Magnetism? Magnetism Makes Electricity??? ...

CLASSIFICATION

<h2>
CLASSIFICATION</h2>
What is does the word classify mean?Classify -    to group things according to                 similar/different features                 (structures) that they share <br />“Science” of classification is called taxonomy<br />
<h2>
Classification:  Living things vs. Nonliving things </h2>
Properties of Nonliving Things<br />(Property- A quality/trait/feature that describes object)<br />Not made of cells<br />  Do not carry out life activities<br />Do not move by themselves<br />Do not develop and reproduce<br />
<h2>
Classification:  Living things vs. Nonliving things </h2>
Properties of Living Things<br />Carries out basic life activities<br />Move, grow, and reproduce<br />Senses and reacts to their environment<br />Organism-  A living thing that can carry               out all of the basic life activities<br />
<h2>
WHAT’S IN A NAME?</h2>
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Scientists have a system for naming all the living organisms on earth.<br />The system was created by a Swedish scientist named Carolus Linnaeus <br />Developed over 200 years ago<br />He gave each organism a two-word Latin name (Binomial Nomenclature) <br /><br />
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<h2>
Linneaus’ System of Scientific Names</h2>
Each species of a living thing is given a DOUBLE NAME<br />    EX:    Just like your first and last name<br />First Name (Genus)    <br />Tells which group of similar species the living thing belongs to<br />Second Name (Species)<br />Tells the name of the one particular species in that genus<br />
<h2>
Linneaus’ System of Scientific Names</h2>
Example: Scientific Name for a dog            Canis familiaris<br />Scientific Name for a Timber Wolf        Canis lupus<br />Scientific Name for a Coyote            Canis latrans<br />Notice that the word Canis is used in all of these names. This is the   Latin word for DOG.<br />It is used as the genus name because these animals are all dog-like animals<br />The second name, species, indicates the particular type of dog<br />
<h2>
Linneau’s System of Scientific Names</h2>
Binomial Nomenclature - Rules<br />Example: Canis familiaris <br />1.  First letter of first word (genus) is always capitalized<br />2.  First letter of second word (species) is not capitalized<br />Both words are italicized or<br />DO NOT underline space between words!!! <br />
<h2>
How Are Living Things Classified?</h2>
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There are 7 levels in the classification system of organisms<br />As one goes from the Kingdom to the Species (DOWNWARD)…An increase in the similarity between organisms occur <br />There are fewer numbers of different kinds of organisms <br />
<h2>
How Are Living Things Classified Cont’d?</h2>
Kingdom:  The highest level <br />Phylum:  A subdivision of a kingdom<br />Class:  Each phylum is divided into classes<br />Order:  Each class is divided into orders<br />Family:  Each order is divided into families<br />Genus:  Each family is divided into genera<br />Species:  Lowest level (represents a single type of organism)<br />
<h2>
How Are Living Things Classified Cont’d?</h2>
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Homework:  Write an original catch phrase for the categories of classification so that each word in the phrase begins with the letter of the category in their correct order from largest to smallest<br />
<h2>
How Are Living Things Classified Cont’d?</h2>
Assignment: Write-out, highlight, and then following questions about how living things are classified.<br />1.  Who was Carolus Linneaus?<br />2.  Define property.<br />3.  Give one example of a property.<br />4.  List the 7 levels of classification starting with the largest group.<br />5.  What is binomial nomenclature?<br />6.  List the three rules of binomial nomenclature.<br /><br />
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CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION What is does the word classify mean?Classify - to group things according to similar/different features ...

THERMOCHEMISTRY

<h2>
THERMOCHEMISTRY</h2>
The study of heat released or required by chemical reactions<br />
 Fuel is burnt to produce energy - combustion (e.g. when fossil fuels are burnt)<br />
CH4(g)   +   2O2(g)                CO2(g)   + 2H2O(l)   +  energy  <br />
<h2>
What is Energy?</h2>
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<h2>
Total Energy  =   Kinetic Energy   +   Potential Energy</h2>
<h2>
</h2>
                   E   =   EK   +    EP<br />
Kinetic energy & potential energy are interchangeable<br />
Ball thrown upwards slows & loses kinetic energy but gains potential energy<br />
The reverse happens as it falls back to the ground<br />
<h2>
Law of Conservation of Energy</h2>
:  the total energy of the universe is constant and can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed.The internal energy, U, of a sample is the sum of all the kinetic and potential energies of all the atoms and molecules in a sample<br />
i.e. it is the total energy of all the atoms and molecules in a sample<br />
<h2>
Systems & Surroundings</h2>
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 In thermodynamics, the world is divided into a system and its surroundings<br />
A system is the part of the world we want to study (e.g. a reaction mixture in a flask)<br />
The surroundings consist of everything else outside the system<br />
<h2>
OPEN SYSTEM</h2>
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:  can exchange both matter and energy with the surroundings (e.g. open reaction flask, rocket engine)CLOSED SYSTEM:  can exchange only energy with the surroundings (matter remains fixed) e.g. a sealed reaction flask<br />
ISOLATED SYSTEM:  can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings (e.g. a thermos flask)<br />
<h2>
HEAT and WORK</h2>
HEAT is the energy that transfers from one object to another when the two things are at different temperatures and in some kind of contact<br />
e.g.   kettle heats on a gas flame<br />
        cup of tea cools down (loses energy as heat)<br />
Thermal motion (random molecular motion) is increased by heat energy<br />
i.e. heat stimulates thermal motion<br />
<h2>
Work</h2>
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is the transfer of energy that takes place when an object is moved against an opposing forcei.e. a system does work when it expands against an external pressure<br />
Car engine:  petrol burns & produces gases which push out pistons in the engine and transfer energy to the wheels of car<br />
Work stimulates uniform motion<br />
 Heat and work can be considered as energy in transit<br />
<h2>
 UNITS OF ENERGY</h2>
S.I. unit of energy is the joule (J)<br />
Heat and work ( energy in transit) also measured in joules<br />
1 kJ (kilojoule)  =  103 J<br />Calorie (cal): 1 cal is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1oC<br />1 cal  =  4.184 J<br />
<h2>
INTERNAL ENERGY (U)</h2>
Internal energy changes when energy enters or leaves a system<br />U  =  Ufinal  -  Uinitial<br />U             change in the internal energy<br />Heat and work are 2 equivalent ways of changing the internal energy of a system<br />
<h2>
First Law of Thermodynamics:</h2>
  the internal energy of an isolated system is constant<br />Signs (+/-) will tell you if energy is entering or leaving a system<br />+  indica- indicates energy leaves a system<br />tes energy enters a system<br />
<h2>
WORK</h2>
An important form of work is EXPANSION WORK i.e. the work done when a system changes size and pushes against an external force<br />e.g. the work done by hot gases in an engine as they push back the pistons<br />HEAT<br />In a system that can’t expand, no work is done (w = 0)<br /> U  =  q  +  w<br />when w = 0,   U  =  q    (at constant volume)A change in internal energy can be identified with the heat supplied at constant volume<br />
<h2>
ENTHALPY (H) </h2>
 (comes from Greek for “heat inside”) <br /> the change in internal energy is not equal to the heat supplied when the system is free to change its volume<br /> some of the energy can return to the surroundings as expansion work<br />The heat supplied is equal to the change in another thermodynamic property called enthalpy (H)<br />As most reactions in chemistry take place at constant pressure we can say that:<br />
<h2>
EXOTHERMIC & ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS</h2>
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Exothermic process: a change (e.g. a chemical reaction) that releases heat.<br />A release of heat corresponds to a decrease in enthalpy<br />Exothermic process:  H < 0 (at constant pressure)<br />Burning fossil fuels is an exothermic reaction<br />
<h2>
Endothermic process: </h2>
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: a change (e.g. a chemical reaction) that requires (or absorbs) heatAn input of heat corresponds to an increase in enthalpy<br />Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction (requires energy input from sun)<br />Forming Na+ and Cl- ions from NaCl is an endothermic process<br />
<h2>
Measuring Heat</h2>
Exothermic reaction, heat given off & temperature of water rises<br />Endothermic reaction, heat taken in & temperature of water drops<br />How do we relate change in temp. to the energy transferred?<br />Heat capacity (J/oC) =  heat supplied (J)<br />Heat Capacity = heat required to raise temp. of an object by 1oC<br /> more heat is required to raise the temp. of a large sample of a substance by 1oC than is needed for a smaller sample<br />
<h2>
Specific heat capacity  </h2>
capacity is the quantity of energy required to change the temperature of a 1g sample of something by 1oCSpecific Heat Capacity (Cs)<br />
<h2>
Vaporisation</h2>
Energy has to be supplied to a liquid to enable it to overcome forces that hold molecules together<br /> endothermic process (H positive)<br />Melting<br />Energy is supplied to a solid to enable it to vibrate more vigorously until molecules can move past each other and flow as a liquid<br /> endothermic process (H positive)<br />Freezing<br />

<br />

cLiquid releases energy and allows molecules to settle into a lower energy state and form a solid<br /> exothermic process (H negative)<br />(we remove heat from water when making ice in freezer) <br />
<h2>
Reaction Enthalpies</h2>
All chemical reactions either release or absorb heat<br />Exothermic reactions: <br />Reactants            products   +   energy as heat  (H  -ve) <br />e.g. burning fossil fuels<br />Endothermic reactions: <br />Reactants +   energy as heat               products (H  +ve) <br />e.g. photosynthesis<br />
<h2>
Bond Strengths</h2>
Bond strengths measured by bond enthalpy HB (+ve values)<br /> bond breaking requires energy   (+ve H)<br /> bond making releases energy (-ve H)<br />Lattice Enthalpy<br />A measure of the attraction between ions (the enthalpy change when a solid is broken up into a gas of its ions)<br /> all lattice enthalpies are positive<br /> I.e. energy is required o break up solids<br />
<h2>
Enthalpy of hydration Hhyd </h2>
 the enthalpy change accompanying the hydration of gas-phase ions<br />Na+ (g)  +  Cl- (g)                 Na+ (aq)  +  Cl- (aq)<br /> -ve H values (favourable interaction)<br />WHY DO THINGS DISSOLVE?<br />
 If dissolves and solution heats up :  exothermic<br />If dissolves and solution cools down: endothermic<br />
<h2>
Second Law of Thermodynamics:</h2>
  the disorder (or entropy) of a system tends to increase<br />ENTROPY (S)<br />Entropy is a measure of disorder<br /> Low entropy (S) = low disorder<br />High entropy (S) = greater disorder<br /> hot metal block tends to cool<br /> gas spreads out as much as possible<br />
<h2>
A spontaneous change  </h2>
is a change that has a tendency to occur without been driven by an external influencee.g. the cooling of a hot metal block to the temperature of its surroundings<br />A non-spontaneous change  is a change that occurs only when driven<br />e.g. forcing electric current through a metal block to heat it<br /><br />
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THERMOCHEMISTRY

THERMOCHEMISTRY The study of heat released or required by chemical reactions Fuel is burnt to produce energy - combustion (e.g. when fos...

Chapter Seven

<h2>
Chapter Seven    </h2>
A View of the Cell<br />
<h2>
Cellular Organization</h2>
Cell<br />Tissue – group of cells functioning together.<br />Organ – group of tissues functioning together.<br />Organ System – group of organs functioning together.<br />Organism – group of organ systems functioning together.<br />
<h2>
The History of the Cell</h2>
The Cell<br />The basic unit of an organism<br />Discovery made possible by the invention of the microscope<br />
<h2>
Microscopes and Cells</h2>
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1600’s.<br />Anton van Leeuwenhoek first described living cells as seen through a simple microscope.<br />
<h2>
 Microscopes and Cells</h2>
Robert Hooke used the first compound microscope to view thinly sliced cork cells.<br />Compound scopes use a series of lenses to magnify in steps.<br />Hooke was the first to use the term “cell”.<br />
<h2>
Microscopes and Cells</h2>
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  <br />1830’s.<br />Mathias Schleiden identified the first plant cells and concluded that all plants <br />            made of cells.<br />- Thomas Schwann made the same conclusion about animal cells.<br />
<h2>
 Cell Theory:</h2>
All organisms are made up of one or more cells.<br />The cell is the basic unit of organization of all organisms.<br />All cells come from other cells all ready in existence.<br />
<h2>
Two Basic Cell Types</h2>
1) Prokaryote<br />Lacks internal compartments.<br />No true nucleus.<br />Most are single-celled (unicellular) organisms.<br />Examples: bacteria<br />
<h2>
Two Basic Cell Types</h2>
2) Eukaryote<br />Has several internal structures (organelles).<br />True nucleus.<br />Either unicellular or multicellular.<br />unicellular example: yeast<br />      multicellular examples: <br />        plants and animals<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell 1) Boundaries </h2>
A) Plasma Membrane <br />   -- Serves as a boundary between the cell and its external environment.<br />   -- Allows materials to pass in and     out of the cell.<br />
<h2>
1) Boundaries </h2>
   B)     -- Surrounds the plasma membrane of the cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi.<br />Cell Wall<br />    -- Plant cell walls contain cellulose while fungi cell walls contain chitin.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell: 2) Controls</h2>
A) Nucleus<br />Regulates cell function.<br />Surrounded by a double-layered membrane (nuclear enveloped) with large pores that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus.<br />Contains chromatin – long tangles of DNA.<br />
<h2>
2) Controls</h2>
B) Nucleolus<br />Found in the nucleus and responsible for ribosome production.  Ribosomes are the sites of protein production.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell: 3) Assembly </h2>
Cytoplasm<br />The jelly-like material that surrounds the organelles.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell: 4) Transport</h2>
A) Endoplasmic reticulum<br />Folded membrane that acts as the cell’s delivery system.<br />Smooth E.R. contains enzymes for lipid synthesis.<br />Rough E.R. is studded with ribosomes for protein synthesis.<br />
<h2>
4) Transport</h2>
B) Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)<br />A series of flattened sacs where newly made lipids and proteins from the E.R. are repackaged and shipped to the plasma membrane.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  5) Storage</h2>
A) Vacuoles<br />A sac of fluid surrounded by a membrane used to store food, fluid, or waste products.<br />
<h2>
 5) Storage</h2>
B) Lysosomes<br />Contain a digestive enzyme.<br />Can fuse with vacuoles to digest food, or can digest worn cell parts.<br />Also known as “suicide sacs” because they can also destroy the whole cell.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  6) Energy Transformers</h2>
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Mitochondria<br />Produce the energy for the cell.<br />Also known as the “powerhouse of the cell”.<br />Has a highly folded inner membrane (cristae).<br /><br />
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<h2>
 6) Energy Transformers</h2>
B) Chloroplasts<br />    -- Found in plant cells and some protists.<br />    -- Transforms light energy into chemical energy which is stored in food molecules.<br />    -- Contain chlorophyll – a green pigment that traps light energy and gives plants their green color.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  7) Support</h2>
Cytoskeleton<br />A network of thin, fibrous materials that act as a scaffold and support the organelles.<br />Microtubules – hollow filaments of protein.<br />Microfilaments – solid filaments of protein.<br />
<h2>
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  8) Locomotion</h2>
1) Cilia<br />Short, numerous, hair-like projections from the plasma membrane.<br /> Move with a coordinated beating action.<br /><br />
<h2>
8) Locomotion</h2>
B) Flagella<br />Longer, less numerous projections from the plasma membrane.<br />Move with a whiplike action.<br />
<h2>
 The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  9) Cell Division </h2>
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Centrioles<br />made of protein.<br />play a role in the splitting of the cell into two cells.<br />found in animal and fungi cells.<br /><br />

Chapter Seven

Chapter Seven A View of the Cell Cellular Organization Cell Tissue – group of cells functioning together. Organ – group of tissues ...

Butterfly Life Cycle

<h2>
Butterfly Life Cycle</h2>
Kindergarten<br />Sweetwater Primary School<br /><br />
<h2>
1. The Egg</h2>
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The female butterfly lays an egg on a leaf.<br />
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<h2>
2. Caterpillar</h2>
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Out of the egg hatches a tiny caterpillar.<br />The caterpillar eats and eats and eats.<br />
<h2>
 3. The Chrysalis</h2>
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The caterpillar wraps himself inside a cocoon and stays inside for about 2 weeks.<br />
<h2>
4. The Butterfly</h2>
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Out of the chrysalis comes a beautiful butterfly!<br />
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 Butterfly Facts</h2>
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Butterflies can see red, green, and yellow.<br />Butterflies have four wings.<br />They have antennae that help them see.<br />Female butterflies are bigger than male butterflies.<br />A butterfly flies from flower to flower eating nectar.<br /><br />
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Butterfly Life Cycle

Butterfly Life Cycle Kindergarten Sweetwater Primary School 1. The Egg The female butterfly lays an egg on a leaf. 2. Caterpillar ...