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THERMOCHEMISTRY

<h2>
THERMOCHEMISTRY</h2>
The study of heat released or required by chemical reactions<br />
 Fuel is burnt to produce energy - combustion (e.g. when fossil fuels are burnt)<br />
CH4(g)   +   2O2(g)                CO2(g)   + 2H2O(l)   +  energy  <br />
<h2>
What is Energy?</h2>
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Total Energy  =   Kinetic Energy   +   Potential Energy</h2>
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</h2>
                   E   =   EK   +    EP<br />
Kinetic energy & potential energy are interchangeable<br />
Ball thrown upwards slows & loses kinetic energy but gains potential energy<br />
The reverse happens as it falls back to the ground<br />
<h2>
Law of Conservation of Energy</h2>
:  the total energy of the universe is constant and can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed.The internal energy, U, of a sample is the sum of all the kinetic and potential energies of all the atoms and molecules in a sample<br />
i.e. it is the total energy of all the atoms and molecules in a sample<br />
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Systems & Surroundings</h2>
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 In thermodynamics, the world is divided into a system and its surroundings<br />
A system is the part of the world we want to study (e.g. a reaction mixture in a flask)<br />
The surroundings consist of everything else outside the system<br />
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OPEN SYSTEM</h2>
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:  can exchange both matter and energy with the surroundings (e.g. open reaction flask, rocket engine)CLOSED SYSTEM:  can exchange only energy with the surroundings (matter remains fixed) e.g. a sealed reaction flask<br />
ISOLATED SYSTEM:  can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings (e.g. a thermos flask)<br />
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HEAT and WORK</h2>
HEAT is the energy that transfers from one object to another when the two things are at different temperatures and in some kind of contact<br />
e.g.   kettle heats on a gas flame<br />
        cup of tea cools down (loses energy as heat)<br />
Thermal motion (random molecular motion) is increased by heat energy<br />
i.e. heat stimulates thermal motion<br />
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Work</h2>
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is the transfer of energy that takes place when an object is moved against an opposing forcei.e. a system does work when it expands against an external pressure<br />
Car engine:  petrol burns & produces gases which push out pistons in the engine and transfer energy to the wheels of car<br />
Work stimulates uniform motion<br />
 Heat and work can be considered as energy in transit<br />
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 UNITS OF ENERGY</h2>
S.I. unit of energy is the joule (J)<br />
Heat and work ( energy in transit) also measured in joules<br />
1 kJ (kilojoule)  =  103 J<br />Calorie (cal): 1 cal is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1oC<br />1 cal  =  4.184 J<br />
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INTERNAL ENERGY (U)</h2>
Internal energy changes when energy enters or leaves a system<br />U  =  Ufinal  -  Uinitial<br />U             change in the internal energy<br />Heat and work are 2 equivalent ways of changing the internal energy of a system<br />
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First Law of Thermodynamics:</h2>
  the internal energy of an isolated system is constant<br />Signs (+/-) will tell you if energy is entering or leaving a system<br />+  indica- indicates energy leaves a system<br />tes energy enters a system<br />
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WORK</h2>
An important form of work is EXPANSION WORK i.e. the work done when a system changes size and pushes against an external force<br />e.g. the work done by hot gases in an engine as they push back the pistons<br />HEAT<br />In a system that can’t expand, no work is done (w = 0)<br /> U  =  q  +  w<br />when w = 0,   U  =  q    (at constant volume)A change in internal energy can be identified with the heat supplied at constant volume<br />
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ENTHALPY (H) </h2>
 (comes from Greek for “heat inside”) <br /> the change in internal energy is not equal to the heat supplied when the system is free to change its volume<br /> some of the energy can return to the surroundings as expansion work<br />The heat supplied is equal to the change in another thermodynamic property called enthalpy (H)<br />As most reactions in chemistry take place at constant pressure we can say that:<br />
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EXOTHERMIC & ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS</h2>
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Exothermic process: a change (e.g. a chemical reaction) that releases heat.<br />A release of heat corresponds to a decrease in enthalpy<br />Exothermic process:  H < 0 (at constant pressure)<br />Burning fossil fuels is an exothermic reaction<br />
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Endothermic process: </h2>
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: a change (e.g. a chemical reaction) that requires (or absorbs) heatAn input of heat corresponds to an increase in enthalpy<br />Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction (requires energy input from sun)<br />Forming Na+ and Cl- ions from NaCl is an endothermic process<br />
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Measuring Heat</h2>
Exothermic reaction, heat given off & temperature of water rises<br />Endothermic reaction, heat taken in & temperature of water drops<br />How do we relate change in temp. to the energy transferred?<br />Heat capacity (J/oC) =  heat supplied (J)<br />Heat Capacity = heat required to raise temp. of an object by 1oC<br /> more heat is required to raise the temp. of a large sample of a substance by 1oC than is needed for a smaller sample<br />
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Specific heat capacity  </h2>
capacity is the quantity of energy required to change the temperature of a 1g sample of something by 1oCSpecific Heat Capacity (Cs)<br />
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Vaporisation</h2>
Energy has to be supplied to a liquid to enable it to overcome forces that hold molecules together<br /> endothermic process (H positive)<br />Melting<br />Energy is supplied to a solid to enable it to vibrate more vigorously until molecules can move past each other and flow as a liquid<br /> endothermic process (H positive)<br />Freezing<br />

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cLiquid releases energy and allows molecules to settle into a lower energy state and form a solid<br /> exothermic process (H negative)<br />(we remove heat from water when making ice in freezer) <br />
<h2>
Reaction Enthalpies</h2>
All chemical reactions either release or absorb heat<br />Exothermic reactions: <br />Reactants            products   +   energy as heat  (H  -ve) <br />e.g. burning fossil fuels<br />Endothermic reactions: <br />Reactants +   energy as heat               products (H  +ve) <br />e.g. photosynthesis<br />
<h2>
Bond Strengths</h2>
Bond strengths measured by bond enthalpy HB (+ve values)<br /> bond breaking requires energy   (+ve H)<br /> bond making releases energy (-ve H)<br />Lattice Enthalpy<br />A measure of the attraction between ions (the enthalpy change when a solid is broken up into a gas of its ions)<br /> all lattice enthalpies are positive<br /> I.e. energy is required o break up solids<br />
<h2>
Enthalpy of hydration Hhyd </h2>
 the enthalpy change accompanying the hydration of gas-phase ions<br />Na+ (g)  +  Cl- (g)                 Na+ (aq)  +  Cl- (aq)<br /> -ve H values (favourable interaction)<br />WHY DO THINGS DISSOLVE?<br />
 If dissolves and solution heats up :  exothermic<br />If dissolves and solution cools down: endothermic<br />
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Second Law of Thermodynamics:</h2>
  the disorder (or entropy) of a system tends to increase<br />ENTROPY (S)<br />Entropy is a measure of disorder<br /> Low entropy (S) = low disorder<br />High entropy (S) = greater disorder<br /> hot metal block tends to cool<br /> gas spreads out as much as possible<br />
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A spontaneous change  </h2>
is a change that has a tendency to occur without been driven by an external influencee.g. the cooling of a hot metal block to the temperature of its surroundings<br />A non-spontaneous change  is a change that occurs only when driven<br />e.g. forcing electric current through a metal block to heat it<br /><br />
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THERMOCHEMISTRY

THERMOCHEMISTRY The study of heat released or required by chemical reactions Fuel is burnt to produce energy - combustion (e.g. when fos...

Chapter Seven

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Chapter Seven    </h2>
A View of the Cell<br />
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Cellular Organization</h2>
Cell<br />Tissue – group of cells functioning together.<br />Organ – group of tissues functioning together.<br />Organ System – group of organs functioning together.<br />Organism – group of organ systems functioning together.<br />
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The History of the Cell</h2>
The Cell<br />The basic unit of an organism<br />Discovery made possible by the invention of the microscope<br />
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Microscopes and Cells</h2>
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1600’s.<br />Anton van Leeuwenhoek first described living cells as seen through a simple microscope.<br />
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 Microscopes and Cells</h2>
Robert Hooke used the first compound microscope to view thinly sliced cork cells.<br />Compound scopes use a series of lenses to magnify in steps.<br />Hooke was the first to use the term “cell”.<br />
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Microscopes and Cells</h2>
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  <br />1830’s.<br />Mathias Schleiden identified the first plant cells and concluded that all plants <br />            made of cells.<br />- Thomas Schwann made the same conclusion about animal cells.<br />
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 Cell Theory:</h2>
All organisms are made up of one or more cells.<br />The cell is the basic unit of organization of all organisms.<br />All cells come from other cells all ready in existence.<br />
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Two Basic Cell Types</h2>
1) Prokaryote<br />Lacks internal compartments.<br />No true nucleus.<br />Most are single-celled (unicellular) organisms.<br />Examples: bacteria<br />
<h2>
Two Basic Cell Types</h2>
2) Eukaryote<br />Has several internal structures (organelles).<br />True nucleus.<br />Either unicellular or multicellular.<br />unicellular example: yeast<br />      multicellular examples: <br />        plants and animals<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell 1) Boundaries </h2>
A) Plasma Membrane <br />   -- Serves as a boundary between the cell and its external environment.<br />   -- Allows materials to pass in and     out of the cell.<br />
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1) Boundaries </h2>
   B)     -- Surrounds the plasma membrane of the cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi.<br />Cell Wall<br />    -- Plant cell walls contain cellulose while fungi cell walls contain chitin.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell: 2) Controls</h2>
A) Nucleus<br />Regulates cell function.<br />Surrounded by a double-layered membrane (nuclear enveloped) with large pores that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus.<br />Contains chromatin – long tangles of DNA.<br />
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2) Controls</h2>
B) Nucleolus<br />Found in the nucleus and responsible for ribosome production.  Ribosomes are the sites of protein production.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell: 3) Assembly </h2>
Cytoplasm<br />The jelly-like material that surrounds the organelles.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell: 4) Transport</h2>
A) Endoplasmic reticulum<br />Folded membrane that acts as the cell’s delivery system.<br />Smooth E.R. contains enzymes for lipid synthesis.<br />Rough E.R. is studded with ribosomes for protein synthesis.<br />
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4) Transport</h2>
B) Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)<br />A series of flattened sacs where newly made lipids and proteins from the E.R. are repackaged and shipped to the plasma membrane.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  5) Storage</h2>
A) Vacuoles<br />A sac of fluid surrounded by a membrane used to store food, fluid, or waste products.<br />
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 5) Storage</h2>
B) Lysosomes<br />Contain a digestive enzyme.<br />Can fuse with vacuoles to digest food, or can digest worn cell parts.<br />Also known as “suicide sacs” because they can also destroy the whole cell.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  6) Energy Transformers</h2>
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Mitochondria<br />Produce the energy for the cell.<br />Also known as the “powerhouse of the cell”.<br />Has a highly folded inner membrane (cristae).<br /><br />
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<h2>
 6) Energy Transformers</h2>
B) Chloroplasts<br />    -- Found in plant cells and some protists.<br />    -- Transforms light energy into chemical energy which is stored in food molecules.<br />    -- Contain chlorophyll – a green pigment that traps light energy and gives plants their green color.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  7) Support</h2>
Cytoskeleton<br />A network of thin, fibrous materials that act as a scaffold and support the organelles.<br />Microtubules – hollow filaments of protein.<br />Microfilaments – solid filaments of protein.<br />
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The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  8) Locomotion</h2>
1) Cilia<br />Short, numerous, hair-like projections from the plasma membrane.<br /> Move with a coordinated beating action.<br /><br />
<h2>
8) Locomotion</h2>
B) Flagella<br />Longer, less numerous projections from the plasma membrane.<br />Move with a whiplike action.<br />
<h2>
 The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell:  9) Cell Division </h2>
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Centrioles<br />made of protein.<br />play a role in the splitting of the cell into two cells.<br />found in animal and fungi cells.<br /><br />

Chapter Seven

Chapter Seven A View of the Cell Cellular Organization Cell Tissue – group of cells functioning together. Organ – group of tissues ...

Butterfly Life Cycle

<h2>
Butterfly Life Cycle</h2>
Kindergarten<br />Sweetwater Primary School<br /><br />
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1. The Egg</h2>
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The female butterfly lays an egg on a leaf.<br />
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<h2>
2. Caterpillar</h2>
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Out of the egg hatches a tiny caterpillar.<br />The caterpillar eats and eats and eats.<br />
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 3. The Chrysalis</h2>
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The caterpillar wraps himself inside a cocoon and stays inside for about 2 weeks.<br />
<h2>
4. The Butterfly</h2>
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Out of the chrysalis comes a beautiful butterfly!<br />
<h2>
 Butterfly Facts</h2>
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Butterflies can see red, green, and yellow.<br />Butterflies have four wings.<br />They have antennae that help them see.<br />Female butterflies are bigger than male butterflies.<br />A butterfly flies from flower to flower eating nectar.<br /><br />
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Butterfly Life Cycle

Butterfly Life Cycle Kindergarten Sweetwater Primary School 1. The Egg The female butterfly lays an egg on a leaf. 2. Caterpillar ...

No you were not downloaded. only enjoy

No you were not downloaded. only enjoy

Yellow and red Color new fashion dress

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Shailene Woodley</div>
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Super Red Dress</div>
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Yellow and red Color new fashion dress

Shailene Woodley Super Red Dress

Super Art Effects

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U.S. billionaire racist statement of the result

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State of California-Los Angeles, in line with reports received here Friday during a statement, Steve Ballmer has confirmed that he is illustrious club within the us Basketball l.  a.   Clippers in exchange for 2 billion bucks can obtain. It still sports club can pay the best worth.<br />
Supervisor basketball within the U.S. National Basketball Association, National Association by Donald Sterling NBA family that he was reaching to place an excessive amount of pressure on the 'parts' to sell. the top of the family 'parts' own recent racist statements were created.<br />
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Donald Sterling may be a non-public oral communication together with his girlfriend had told him that he 'parts' of the black fans to look at matches with my friends United Nations agency didn't. The unauthorized recording of the oral communication then reached the U.S. media and therefore the NBA.<br />
According to California state law to record someone's non-public conversations while not permission may be a crime and therefore the prosecution of any person in any such recordings couldn't be used. Donald Sterling against this statement cannot be run as a case in California, however the National Basketball Association took serious notice of the biased and demanded that Donald Sterling 'parts' possession and management area unit break away Jump.<br />
Donald Sterling that the 'parts' proprietary and administration was bimanual over to his woman, Shelly Sterling. however during this case, once prolonged NBA concerning the Sterling family started pressuring l.  a.   that sells the illustrious basketball club in order that the longer term of this family 'parts' with don't worry.<br />
&nbsp;Steve Ballmer<br />
Steve Ballmer<br />
Thursday night, Donald Sterling's woman, Shelly, additionally issued a press release that same that their family's money representative, as Sterling's former head of Microsoft Steve Ballmer has united with Ballmer 'parts' obtain can. This agreement not nevertheless signed, and Donald Sterling while not the 'parts' sales isn't potential.<br />
Steve Ballmer since 2000 till this year, Microsoft's head. they're very curious basketball and he same that they'll attempt each potential elements of the LA series of spectacular successes continue in future.<br />
Donald Sterling elements of the MLA in 1981, was bought for $ twelve million. The club still has not won even once NBA championship. U.S. team for winning the championship or ever has been such a large quantity.

U.S. billionaire racist statement of the result

State of California-Los Angeles, in line with reports received here Friday during a statement, Steve Ballmer has confirmed that he is illu...

Pakistan graded 164 in FIFA ranking comes on the hand-made production

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Pakistan graded 164 in FIFA ranking comes on the hand-made production that's at soccer. This year's soccer World Cup for Pakistan within the 3 thousand soccer generated are going to be used. noted for creating sports merchandise in Sialkot Pakistan then everybody feels like celebrating. The manufacturing plant is found on the outskirts of town, for the globe Cup football game matches area unit being created.<br />
Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and business at the invite of the Brazilian ambassador in Pakistan Sialkot new inward Gregorian calendar month. Them by the voters of Sialkot symbolically Created for World Cup football game matches are going to be conferred.. Glad they Sialkot profession thanks to its prime quality product worldwide to enhance Pakistan's image has become. in step with him, brazuka, the readiness of Pakistan was proud. The Sialkot colleges, government and non-government organizations and business circles by expressing his pleasure concerning the events area unit being command.<br />
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Wazirabad to Sialkot to national capital on the road at a distance of 10 kilometers, a sprawling grey coloured building has been the middle of attention these days, it is a manufacturing plant Forward Sports (Pvt) Ltd., that FIFA World Cup soccer area unit being developed. AN trained worker operating within the manufacturing plant, said,'' once the news came across the manufacturing plant that our soccer has been approved for the globe Cup and everybody was more than happy. Then the prayers of feeling and a [*fr1] thousand staff by manufacturing plant homeowners a grand feast was organized.''<br />
World Cup soccer manufacturing plant owner Khawaja Masood Akhtar tusul engineering education gained once graduation from the university joined his family's ancient business. In response to a matter, he said,'' was a troublesome machine to football game observe, the computers, computer code and advanced technology is incredibly abundant in Pakistan weren't specialists within the field, despite the we have a tendency to worked arduous, created the team, don't compromise on quality, and by the grace of God we have a tendency to got the win.''<br />
The manufacturing plant turn out several sorts area unit being soccer, soccer scores for quality check tests area unit on the market, additionally to the manufacturing plant in Sialkot Pakistan soccer Association conjointly supports all soccer clubs.<br />
they get enough orders, Sialkot 'Nowadays there area unit several factories within the region's economic scenario is rising.''<br />
According to his football game observe machine match the handcrafted hair cells continues. Usman Butt, a resident of Sialkot, told DW soccer football game World Cup Sialkot Sialkot for hair not just for Pakistan except for the whole pride.

Pakistan graded 164 in FIFA ranking comes on the hand-made production

Pakistan graded 164 in FIFA ranking comes on the hand-made production that's at soccer. This year's soccer World Cup for Pakistan ...

Djokovic proved that the 'King of Clay' are

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With this ending rfayyl Djokovic, WHO won the tournament ninefold and have become the primary player with 5 consecutive French Open win, he created a record. Spanish player aforementioned once her win, Associate in Nursing emotional and marvelous chance this is often for them.'' it is very necessary on behalf of me to win this tournament. the foremost necessary factor is that i used to be all over again won the French Open. Clay prkhyla within the world, won {the biggest|the most necessary|the largest} tournament of the year and that i assume this is often the foremost important tournament. Djokovic court game world rankings ar listed within the second ing.</div>
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The competition between the 2 lasted for 3 and a [1] hours. Ing win this match if they win all four sweep to become the world's eighth player. Djokovic says was the turning purpose for him was onerous to induce it. He added  that taking part in against Novak Djokovic, could be a major challenge. To win against him, I actually have to use my super powers. i am sorry he failed to win now however i think that in the future, French Open, Novak can win of course.</div>
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French Open opponent, each players have one another sixfold and every time, Djokovic got the pass. Rfayyl Djokovic within the final of the Australian Open in January this year lost. during this respect, he was wounded within the final of the Australian Open, French Open, however lost his defeat has resolved.</div>
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Novak Djokovic, his opponent once the match, Djokovic congratulated him for the success of the sport. Ing aforementioned ninefold, winning the title is wonderful and exceptional performance. i attempted to win the match and used all the tricks within the Court rafa was higher than ME.</div>
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Djokovic the 'King of Clay' is named and therefore the tournament is compete on clay courts plain-woven. The fourteenth career sweep title, Djokovic. Switzerland's Roger Federer in their name ar seventeen sweep. Swedish court game star to win the trophy for the past byyun the Borg, WHO have won sixfold French Open.</div>
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Djokovic proved that the 'King of Clay' are

With this ending rfayyl Djokovic, WHO won the tournament ninefold and have become the primary player with 5 consecutive French Open win, he...

The continents of Asia, climate change risks

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The global average sea level rose 0.19 meters. The chances are that enough akysyuyn century during the rapid rise in sea level will occur. Because of warming oceans and melting glaciers of the ice layers is faster.<br />
UN agency to monitor climate change, Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change '(IPCC) chief Rajendra pacury he told Deutsche Welle that the coastal areas due to flooding caused by climate change in the next century millions of people will be affected by the year 2100. However, the international community, the only way to prevent it from being decisive steps<br />
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According to experts in the area of climate change as the most likely to be affected is one of the Asia-Pacific region, especially in low-lying coastal areas and islands comprising the states.<br />
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A large number of scientists agree that the earth's climate is changing. They say that abnormal increase or decrease in temperature, snow fall and rains Patterns or configuration change, sea level rise and extreme weather affect our planet Earth are, in fact, the men thanks to the greenhouse gases produced by the<br />
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The continents of Asia, climate change risks

The global average sea level rose 0.19 meters. The chances are that enough akysyuyn century during the rapid rise in sea level will occu...

Understanding Chemical Reactions

<h2>
Understanding Chemical Reactions</h2>
Basic Revision<br />
For a chemical reaction to occur, bonds must be both formed and broken<br />Fe  +  CuSO4               Cu    +  FeSO4<br />
<h2>
Basic Revision</h2>
Chemical reactions always involve energy changes.<br />Making and breaking bonds involves energy changes<br /><br />
<h2>
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS</h2>
Exothermic reactions<br />These reactions give out heat energy.<br />Combustion is an exothermic reaction.<br />
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ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS</h2>
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Endothermic reactions<br />These reactions take in heat energy from their surroundings.<br />These cause temperatures to fall.<br />
<h2>
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS</h2>
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Work with 20ml of each substance in turn.<br />Copy the results table before you start<br />
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<h2>
RISK ASSESSMENT</h2>
You will be using acids so wear safety goggles.<br />Wipe up spills immediately<br />Replace stoppers<br />Do not put solids down the sink – use the bowl at the front!<br />
<h2>
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS</h2>
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<h2>
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS </h2>
We can show the energy transfers in reactions on an energy level diagram.<br />
These show us the energy stored in the reactants compared to the energy stored in the products.<br />
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Exothermic energy level diagram</h2>
∆H (‘delta H’) is the symbol for the ‘change in energy’.<br />In an exothermic reaction the products have less energy than the reactants.<br />∆H is negative for an exothermic reaction.<br />
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Endoothermic energy level diagram</h2>
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In an endothermic reaction the products have more energy than the reactants.<br />∆H is positive for an endothermic reaction.<br />
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<h2>
Making and breaking bonds</h2>
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We have seen how bonds are formed (both ionic and covalent)<br />Do you think energy is needed to break bonds?<br />Breaking bonds requires energy. It is endothermic.<br />Breaking bonds requires energy. It is endothermic.<br />Making new bonds gives out energy. It is exothermic.<br /><br />
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Understanding Chemical Reactions

Understanding Chemical Reactions Basic Revision For a chemical reaction to occur, bonds must be both formed and broken Fe + CuSO4 ...

BONDING REVIEW

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Directions: </h2>
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Directions: Each slide provides information in a question answer format. Click once to see the question and then again for the answer. <br />
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See if you can define the following words before starting the lesson…</h2>
Anion- negative ion<br />Cation-positive ion<br />Octet Rule- rule that states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons so that each atom has full  outermost energy level which is typically 8 electrons.<br />Polyatomic Ion- charged group of covalently bound atoms <br />Monatomic Ion- ion formed from a single atom<br />Molecule-neutral group of atoms united by covalent bonds<br />Alloy- homogeneous mixture of metals<br />Unshared Pair- pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding but instead is held exclusively by one atom.  <br />
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Ionic Bonds</h2>
What is an Ionic Bond?<br /><br />
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What are some characteristics of an ionic bond?</h2>
Crystalline at room temperatures<br />Have higher melting points and boiling points compared to covalent compounds <br />Conduct electrical current in molten or solution state but not in the solid state<br />Polar bonds <br />
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What are some characteristics of a covalent bond?</h2>
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Covalent bonds have definite and predicable shapes.<br />Very strong<br />Low melting and boiling points<br /><br />
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 Covalent Bonds can have multiple bonds, so you should be familiar with the following…</h2>
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Single Covalent Bond- chemical bond resulting from sharing of an electron pair between two atoms. <br />Double Covalent Bond- chemical bond resulting from sharing of two electron pairs between two atoms. <br />
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Triple Covalent Bond-chemical bond resulting from sharing of three electron pairs between two atoms. </h2>
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First, we are going to look at Polar Covalent…</h2>
What is polar covalent?<br />-Polar covalent is a description of a bond that has an uneven distribution of charge due to an unequal sharing of bonding electrons. <br />The boy is not equally sharing with anyone else but rather taking all the food for himself. <br />
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Next, we are going to look at Non-Polar Covalent…</h2>
What is non-polar covalent?<br />-Non polar covalent is a covalent bond that has an even distribution of charge due to an equal sharing of bonding electrons. <br />This couple is non- polar because they are sharing the drink equally between them. <br />
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Next, we are going to look at Molecular Substances…</h2>
What is a molecular substance?<br />-A molecular substance is a substance that has atoms held together by covalent bonds.  <br />Name 2 Characteristics of a Molecular Substance.<br />Weak<br />Low melting and boiling points<br />
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Next, we are going to look at Coordinate Covalent…</h2>
What is a Coordinate Covalent Bond?<br />-A coordinate covalent bond is a  bond formed when one atom donates both electrons that are shared. <br />People donate their blood to help others just like atoms “donate” electrons to form stable octets.<br />*Think about the party analogy! <br />
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Now, we are going to look at Network Solids…</h2>
What is a Network Solid?<br />-A network solid is a solid that has covalently bonded atoms linked in one big network or one big macromolecule. <br />Diphenylglycoluril assembles into a unique, two-dimensional hydrogen bonding network in the solid state, while exhibiting a twisted molecular structure.<br />Name 3 Characteristics of a Network Solid.<br />Poor conductors of heat and electricity<br />Poor conductors of heat and electricity<br />Hard / Strong<br />High melting and boiling points<br />
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Metallic Bonding</h2>
What is a Metallic Bond?<br />- A metallic bond occurs in metals. A metal consists of positive ions surrounded by a “sea” of mobile electrons. <br />Name 4 Characteristics of a Metallic Bond.<br />Good conductors of heat and electricity<br />Great strength<br />Malleable and Ductile<br />Luster<br />This shows what a metallic bond might look like.<br />
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Polyatomic Bonds</h2>
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Polyatomic ions usually have a charge because the collection of atoms has either gained an extra electron or else it has lost an electron.<br />What is a Polyatomic Bond?<br />- A polyatomic bond is charged group of covalently bonded atoms.  It is made up of more than one atom. <br />
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Notice all the different types of shapes that the atoms can take on because of their bonding…</h2>
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REVIEW</h2>
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Now that you have completed the review provided you may wish to practice for your test by answering the following regents questions. The question is presented in the same way that http://regentsprep.org/ does them. If you would like to get reasons to why your answers were incorrect you can find the explanations there. After you have gotten your answer, click the mouse and the right answer will show up. <br /><br />
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BONDING REVIEW

Directions: Directions: Each slide provides information in a question answer format. Click once to see the question and then again for ...

Atoms & Starlight

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Starlight</h2>
Science has taken great strides in bridging the immense distances and drawing conclusions by using only the most abundant information that we can get from stars - LIGHT.<br />It is the intricate intertwining of light and matter (atoms) that yields a plethora of knowledge and ideas about not only stars but the universe as well.<br />
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The Continuous Spectrum</h2>
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We can produce a continuous spectrum of visual light using any object that behaves like a blackbody.<br />
A graph of the intensity of the light along the various visual wavelengths.<br />
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The Absorption Spectrum</h2>
A cooler, transparent (very thin) gas in front of a source of a mostly continuous spectrum produces an absorption spectrum -- a series of dark spectral lines among the bright colors of the continuous spectrum.<br />
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The Interaction of Light and Matter:</h2>
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At the beginning of the 20th century, scientists were perplexed by the failure of classical physics to explain the characteristics of atomic spectra.<br />Why did atoms of a given element only emit certain lines? <br />Why did those same atoms absorb only those wavelengths that they emitted?<br /><br />
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 Hydrogen </h2>
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What is going on to produce these spectra?</h2>
We now have an idea of the atom's structure and energy levels as well as the various types of spectra, so now we can discuss how the atoms produce these patterns or "light fingerprints."<br /><br />
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Emission Spectra Creation</h2>
The electron in a higher energy state moves down to a lower energy state and produces light with energy that corresponds exactly to the specific energy difference between the two levels.<br />The spectra of this atom before and after the energy level transition. Notice that the one color corresponds to one specific unique transition within the atom.<br /><br />
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Absorption Spectra Creation</h2>
The electron in a lower energy state moves up to a higher energy state and absorbs light with energy that corresponds exactly to the specific energy difference between the two levels.<br />
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Hey there you cute atom, you! Ways to excite an atom into a higher energy state. </h2>
Absorption: We just talked about this above with the upward transitions of electrons. The atom can absorb light energy or photon. Only a photon with exactly the right amount of energy can move the electron from one level to another. If the photon has too much or too little energy the atom cannot absorb it. <br />Collisional Excitation – (bang!): An atom can become excited by a collision with another atom. If two (or more) atoms collide, one or both may have electrons knocked (physically) into a higher energy state. This happens very commonly in a hot gas where atoms move very rapidly and collide vigorously because of the hot temperature.<br />
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De-Excitation</h2>
Electron moves down? – De-excitation. The technical term for the emission of a photon of light with energy and wavelength that corresponds to the energy difference between the energy levels the electron moved downward between.<br />What happens? Light is given off!!  A “light fingerprint” is born.<br /><br />
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Gotcha!  Stellar Spectra</h2>
Give an astronomer a small trickle of light and the riddle will be solved. Science has decoded the Rosetta Stone of stellar spectra. The spectrum of a star tells us a great deal about such things as temperature, motion, composition and much more. A stellar spectra is like a "mug-shot, fingerprint, and DNA test" rolled up into one science.<br /><br />
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Atoms & Starlight

Starlight Science has taken great strides in bridging the immense distances and drawing conclusions by using only the most abundant inform...